Designing Phenomenological Studies

by Janet Salmons, PhD., Research Community Manager for SAGE Methodspace

Research design is the SAGE Methodspace focus for the first quarter of 2023. Selecting the methodology is an essential piece of research design. Phenomenology is one option for researchers who want to learn from the human experience. Thomas A. Schwandt described phenomenology in The SAGE Dictionary of Qualitative Inquiry (2011) as:

[P]henomenologists insist on careful description of ordinary conscious experience of everyday life: the lifeworld—a description of ‘things’ (phenomena or the essential structures of consciousness) as one experiences them. These phenomena we experience include perception (hearing, seeing, etc.), believing, remembering, deciding, feeling, judging, evaluating, and all experiences of bodily action.
Phenomenological descriptions of such things are possible only by turning from things to their meaning, from what is to the nature of what is. This turning away can be accomplished only by a certain phenomenological reduction or epoché that entails ‘bracketing’ or suspending what Husserl calls the “natural attitude.” The natural attitude is the everyday assumption of the independent existence of what is perceived and thought about.

As with most methodologies, there are a number of variations and schools of thought associated with phenomenology. At its simplest, this type of study explores both a) the phenomenon and b) the lived experience or perception of the phenomenon. This gives us the opportunity to look at the research problem from two distinct angles.

The researcher typically conducts interviews or analyzes writings to gain an understanding of the participant’s views of the phenomenon being investigated. As noted by Schwandt, drawing on the philosophy of Husserl and others, phenomenological researchers make an effort to clear their minds of pre-existing expectations, thoughts, or attitudes about the phenomenon in order to accept the participant’s perspectives with minimal bias.

My own dissertation research used this approach, so I offer this brief example. I was interested in online collaboration, and ways to develop the skills needed to collaborate successfully. I looked directly at the phenomenon, online collaboration. I also asked participants who taught using collaborative e-learning to share their perceptions and experiences. The analysis and interpretation aimed to better understand the phenomenon from multiple theoretical and practical perspectives. (I continued to develop this research and published Learning to Collaborate, Collaborating to Learn.)

While phenomenology was originally more common in psychological research, this methodology is now used across disciplines. These open-access articles explore options for solely using phenomenology or mixing phenomenological principles with other methodologies.

How can you decide whether phenomenology fits the purpose of the study?

Burns, M., Bally, J., Burles, M., Holtslander, L., & Peacock, S. (2022). Constructivist Grounded Theory or Interpretive Phenomenology? Methodological Choices Within Specific Study Contexts. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221077758

Constructivist research methodologies are useful in discerning meanings of experience to subsequently inform and improve healthcare practice. For researchers who philosophically align with the constructivist paradigm, numerous methodologies are available from which to choose to address research questions. However, it can be challenging for researchers, especially novice ones, to choose the most appropriate methodology that aligns with the current state of knowledge of the identified topic, proposed research question, and the study purpose. To reduce the confusion faced by health researchers when choosing an appropriate methodology for a specific study, this paper compares two popular qualitative health research approaches: constructivist grounded theory and interpretive phenomenology. Philosophical underpinnings and the epistemological and ontological evolution of each methodology are explored with similarities and differences highlighted. Manifestation of the philosophical foundations of constructivist grounded theory and interpretive phenomenology are described in relation to data collection, analysis, and the research findings. To illustrate distinctions of each approach and support researchers in the navigation of methodological decision-making, a specific healthcare study context is presented: the rural family members’ experiences of a relative’s interhospital transfer for advanced critical care services. This study context is increasingly being recognized as an important area of healthcare research and practice. However, gaps in knowledge persist, specifically in relation to the experiences of rural family members when a critically ill relative requires an interhospital transfer to a distant urban center for advanced critical care services. Improved understanding of such experiences is necessary to inform the care provided to rural family members, potentially mitigating short and long-term negative consequences for these individuals. Within this example, the importance of the research purpose and research question within a specific study context is underscored as central to appropriate methodological decision-making.

Groenewald, T. (2004). A Phenomenological Research Design Illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690400300104

This article distills the core principles of a phenomenological research design and, by means of a specific study, illustrates the phenomenological methodology. After a brief overview of the developments of phenomenology, the research paradigm of the specific study follows. Thereafter the location of the data, the data-gathering the data-storage methods are explained. Unstructured in-depth phenomenological interviews supplemented by memoing, essays by participants, a focus group discussion and field notes were used. The data explicitation, by means of a simplified version of Hycner's (1999) process, is further explained. The article finally contains commentary about the validity and truthfulness measures, as well as a synopsis of the findings of the study.

Olekanma, O., Dörfler, V., & Shafti, F. (2022). Stepping Into the Participants’ Shoes: The Trans-Positional Cognition Approach. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211072413

To conduct a phenomenological study, researchers often follow the principles from either the descriptive or interpretive phenomenological schools of thought. This constrains researchers within the domain and limits the potentials of their data set. This paper introduces the Trans-Positional Cognition Approach (TPCA) as a novel synthesised phenomenological research method for conducting qualitative research to address this challenge. The TPCA synthesises the principles of the descriptive and interpretive phenomenological schools and helps to bridge the divide occasioned by polemical arguments between them. At the heart of TPCA is the process of trans-positional cognition or, in simple words, ‘stepping into the participants’ shoes’. TPCA, within the phenomenological tradition, proposes a structured methodological approach as a way to reduce the complexity of the extant methods, which novice researchers associate with phenomenology. The purpose of TPCA is not to pit one phenomenological research approach against another but to elucidate an inclusive approach to phenomenological research that can serve as a methodological alternative. A set of dimensions is used to compare TPCA with extant descriptive and interpretive phenomenological approaches in order to demonstrate its distinctiveness. Furthermore, an implementation study illustrates the use of the TPCA. Hence, the TPCA, by bridging the divide between the phenomenological schools of thought, could potentially help sustain the growing interest of researchers in phenomenological research.

Urcia, I. A. (2021). Comparisons of Adaptations in Grounded Theory and Phenomenology: Selecting the Specific Qualitative Research Methodology. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211045474

The most widely used qualitative research methodologies are grounded theory and phenomenology. Both methodologies have expanded over time to several adaptations aligning with different paradigms, complex philosophical assumptions, and varying methodological strategies. Novice researchers either mistakenly mix the strategies of both methodologies or blend specific assumptions of methodologies’ different adaptations. Choosing the appropriate methodology and the specific adaptation in line with research inquiry and congruent with the researchers’ worldview is crucial in undertaking rigorous qualitative study. To date, there is limited literature that compared and contrasted the varying philosophical underpinnings of the two methodologies’ different adaptations. The purpose of this methodological paper is to provide a general overview of the two methodologies’ different adaptations to illustrate how they differ in approach. By immersing into the origins, philosophical assumptions, and utility of the two methodologies’ adaptations, novice researchers will develop a general overview of the foundations that support those specific adaptations. Finally, the considerations in choosing a specific adaptation of a methodology are discussed and applied by underpinning a research question on the care experiences of patients in the Accountable Care Unit. Thus, this methodological paper may assist novice researchers in deciding which specific adaptation of the two methodologies is the appropriate qualitative methodology for their research.

van Manen M, van Manen M. Doing Phenomenological Research and Writing. Qualitative Health Research. 2021;31(6):1069-1082. doi:10.1177/10497323211003058

When looking through phenomenology articles in human science and philosophy journals, we may be excused to get the impression that they offer an inconsistent array of phenomenology publications. In this article, we describe three simple but helpful distinctions for determining some order: first, the great foundational publications; second, exegetical publications in the wake of the great works; and third, phenomenological studies done directly on phenomena. Our aim in this article is not to lay claim to phenomenology as a label but rather to discuss how “doing phenomenology directly on the phenomena and the things” means taking up a certain attitude and practicing an attentive awareness to the things of the world as we live and experience them. We propose that engaging in philosophical exegesis and argumentation is not very helpful for analyzing and explicating originary meanings of experiential phenomena. And we show how doing phenomenology directly on the things can be facilitated by a phenomenologically inspired interpretive attitude as well as by a sensitive talent for employing phenomenological examples.

How does phenomenology mix with other methodologies?

Phenomenology and Diary Methods

Cudjoe, E. (2022). Using Diaries With Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Guidelines From a Study of Children Whose Parents Have Mental Illness. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221084435

Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) first appeared in publication in 1996 but was introduced as a comprehensive methodology in a first published book in 2009 by Smith, Flowers and Larkin. Since its publication, IPA has seen tremendous application in psychology and cognate social science disciplines. Most IPA studies have used interviews as their primary data collection tool. This is not surprising as semi-structured interviews fit the theoretical foundations of IPA and the authors of the IPA book themselves dedicated a chapter to interviewing. However, the authors have also lamented the lack of the use of diaries in the methodology. Yet, there are scarce IPA studies (or even phenomenological studies in general) using diaries as data collection tool. This is surprising as diaries are amenable with some core elements of phenomenology which IPA ascribes to. The inadequate use of diaries within IPA may be due to the lack of practical insights into what diaries could look like, how they can be obtained or whether they can fit with phenomenology. In this article, I reflect on how diaries can be administered and what kind of information can be accessed as part of a study involving children whose parents have mental illness. The article shows that diaries have strong connections with the theoretical foundations of IPA. Also, because diaries offer adequate time and space for participants to reflect on their lifeworld, it enables participants to talk in-depth about experiences of significance to them. The article can provide lessons for researchers hoping to employ diaries in their IPA studies or other phenomenological approaches.

Mueller, R. A. (2019). Episodic Narrative Interview: Capturing Stories of Experience With a Methods Fusion. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919866044

Episodic narrative interview is an innovative, phenomenon-driven research method that was developed by integrating elements from several qualitative approaches in a methods fusion. Episodic narrative interview draws on critically oriented theoretical foundations and principles of experience-centered narrative and includes features from narrative inquiry, semistructured interview, and episodic interview. The purpose of episodic narrative interview is to better understand a phenomenon by generating individual stories of experience about that phenomenon. As such, an episodic narrative interview participant provides nested narrative accounts of their experiences with a social phenomenon, within the context of a bounded situation or episode. In this article, the author details the foundations of the episodic narrative interview approach and describes how the method is designed and implemented. The significance of episodic narrative interview is also explored, especially in terms of the ways in which it produces tightly focused, phenomenon-centered narratives that are reflective of particular bounded circumstances.

Phenomenology and Ethnography

Allen-Collinson, J., & Hockey, J. (2015). From a Certain Point of View: Sensory Phenomenological Envisionings of Running Space and Place. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 44(1), 63–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241613505866

The precise ways in which we go about the mundane, repetitive, social actions of everyday life are central concerns of ethnographers and theorists working within the traditions of the sociology of the mundane and sociological phenomenology. In this article, we utilize insights derived from sociological phenomenology and the newly developing field of sensory sociology to investigate a particular, mundane, and embodied social practice, that of training for distance running in specific places: our favored running routes. For, despite a growing body of ethnographic studies of particular sports, little analytic attention has been devoted to the actual, concrete practices of “doing” or “producing” sporting activity, particularly from a sensory ethnographic perspective. Drawing upon data from a 2-year joint autoethnographic research project, here we explore the visual dimension, focusing upon three key themes in relation to our runners’ visualization of, respectively, (1) hazardous places, (2) performance places, (3) the time–space–place nexus.

Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

Laverty, S. M. (2003). Hermeneutic Phenomenology and Phenomenology: A Comparison of Historical and Methodological Considerations. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2(3), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690300200303

Hermeneutic phenomenology and phenomenology have become increasingly popular as research methodologies, yet confusion still exists about the unique aspects of these two methodologies. This article provides a discussion of the essential similarities and differences between hermeneutic phenomenology and phenomenology from historical and methodological perspectives. Consideration is given to the philosophical bases, assumptions, focus of research and research outcomes that differentiate these approaches.

Suddick, K. M., Cross, V., Vuoskoski, P., Galvin, K. T., & Stew, G. (2020). The Work of Hermeneutic Phenomenology. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406920947600

This paper is an illustration of the application of a hermeneutic phenomenological study. The theory of meaning and interpretation, drawing on philosophical hermeneutics and the work of Gadamer and Heidegger, and its alignment with phenomenological thought is presented. The paper explains and aims to make visible how key concerns in relation to the fusion of horizons, hermeneutic understanding, hermeneutic circle and hermeneutic phenomenological attitude were implemented. The purpose is to provide practical guidance and illustrate a fully worked up example of hermeneutic phenomenological work as research praxis. This present paper makes a case that hermeneutic phenomenological work is detailed, lengthy, rigorous and systematic in its own philosophical and theoretical frame. It articulates the philosophical and methodological alignment of hermeneutics in a specific hermeneutic phenomenological study and makes visible the work of hermeneutic phenomenology. It concludes by sharing key reflections and insights on the hermeneutic phenomenological process.

Phenomenology and Participatory Action Research

Bush, E. J., Singh, R. L., & Kooienga, S. (2019). Lived Experiences of a Community: Merging Interpretive Phenomenology and Community-Based Participatory Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919875891

Community-based participatory research (CBPR) and interpretive phenomenology, when merged, can provide insight into the experiences of a homogenous community. The purpose of this manuscript is 2-fold. First, we aim to provide a conceptual view of merging methodological approaches of phenomenology and CBPR. Principles of interpretive phenomenology, the philosophical stance, and the qualitative analysis methodology, as well as how interpretive phenomenology is complementary to CBPR, are reviewed. Second, the utility, rationale, and feasibility of merging these diverse approaches are explored. For illustrative purposes, exemplars from a Parkinson’s disease stakeholder study are used to discuss aims, methods, and results. Focus group data collection strategies and the use of Template Analysis as an analytic tool are also described. Themes that materialized from the data focused on support group experiences for this rural community. In keeping with interpretive phenomenology, the researchers’ interpretation of these themes led to the understanding of an overall essence, or essential theme, of this community’s lived experiences.

Viftrup DT, Nissen R, Søndergaard J, Hvidt NC. Four aspects of spiritual care: a phenomenological action research study on practicing and improving spiritual care at two Danish hospices. Palliative Care and Social Practice. 2021;15. doi:10.1177/26323524211050646

In Denmark and internationally, there has been an increased focus on strengthening palliative care by enhancing spiritual care. Dying patients, however, do not experience their spiritual needs being adequately met.

Through an action research study design with four consecutive stages, namely, observation in practice, reflection-on-praxis, action-in-praxis, and evaluation of the action research process involving patients and hospice staff from two hospices in Denmark, two research questions were explored: (1) How do patients and staff perceive, feel, live, practice, and understand spiritual care at hospice? and (2) How can spiritual care be improved in hospice practice? The data material presented comprised 12 individual interviews with patients and nine focus group interviews with the staff.